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    Pineywoods Habitat Management

    Pineywoods Wildlife Management
    Historical Perspective

    Early 1900's pine forest of East Texas.When early settlers arrived in East Texas, they discovered a vast forest comprised of a variety of both pine and hardwood species. Pines, for the most part, dominated the uplands while hardwoods dominated the bottomlands. The common pine species were shortleaf, longleaf, and loblolly. Although some overlap of pine species did occur, each species was generally restricted to a specific geographical area. Bottomland habitats along rivers, swamps, and associated drainages were interspersed throughout the area. The following is a brief description of each of the major forest types.

    Shortleaf Pine Forest

    The shortleaf pine forest type was located in the northern half of the Pineywoods. This area was generally bordered by the Red River to the north, the Louisiana border to the east, Hopkins county to the west, and Angelina and Houston counties to the south. North of the Sabine River, from Longview through Cass and Bowie counties, the shortleaf pine formed compact forests. Over the remainder of the shortleaf area to the south, a hardwood component became more prevalent in much of the area, but stands of pure pine were also intermixed. The intensity and frequency of forest fires likely controlled the frequency of occurrence of the less fire tolerant hardwoods.

    Since the first railroads were cut through this area, the harvest of the shortleaf timber began earlier than that of the longleaf and loblolly timber. In 1880, it was estimated that 146 million board feet of timber were harvested. For the most part, little attention was given to the reforestation of these areas and hardwood began to occupy many of the sites. However, pine did regenerate successfully in some areas. Many sites, especially on loamy soils, were cleared for cultivation.

    Longleaf Pine Forest

    The longleaf pine forest occupied approximately 5,000 square miles of the south central Pineywoods. The area was bordered by the shortleaf pine area to the north and extended southwestward to the Trinity River, where the overlapping area of shortleaf and loblolly pine formed its western boundary. The longleaf extended east to the Louisiana border, and as far south as the level Gulf Prairie. Longleaf pine typically occurred in pure stands, with a grassy understory, especially on the sandy ridges. Early travelers commented on the "openess" and monotony of these forests. Travelers made comments to the effect that the trees were so openly spaced that a carriage could travel almost anywhere among them and one could see a great distance. These areas were often referred to as "pine barrens".

    Early records indicate that these longleaf forests burned regularly, perhaps as often as annually in some areas. This was evidenced by the abundance of grasses, and the lack of longleaf regeneration in many areas. After the first or second year of growth, longleaf seedlings are fairly fire resistant. However, during the first couple of years, they are susceptible to fire. The lack of longleaf regeneration provided evidence as to the frequency of the fires in many areas. In other areas, where fire was not present for a few years, longleaf regeneration was abundant. Most fires had little, if any effect on the mature trees.

    The purity of these stands, combined with the excellent quality of the timber, made these longleaf forests the most valuable and easily marketed timber resource of the state. Due to the openness of the forest, loggers found it easy for the mules and oxen to maneuver the logs between the standing trees to waiting railroad cars. During the early 1900's, it was estimated that 750 million board feet of longleaf timber were harvested annually. Little consideration was given to regeneration of the stands. However, in some areas where fire was absent for a few years, natural regeneration was successful in establishing seedlings.

    Loblolly Pine Forest

    The loblolly pine forest was estimated to occupy an area of approximately 7,000 square miles and was located to the west and south of the longleaf region. The loblolly region extended south to the interior of the Coastal Plain. This area was characterized by a slightly undulating topography. Low ridges of sandy loam soils were interrupted by lower areas of clays and silts, which were wet during certain times of the year. The ridges were primarily comprised of pure loblolly, while the lower wet areas were comprised of hardwoods with a mixture of loblolly, and a dense understory. Loblolly pines were also found sporadically in the associated creek and river bottoms. The intensity and frequency of forest fires likely controlled the frequency of occurrence of the less fire tolerant hardwoods.

    Loblolly was of commercial value, however the Galveston Storm of 1900 felled many thousand acres of timber and made logging difficult. Little attention was given to regeneration of these forests, and many of the stands were cleared for cultivation of sugar cane, rice, and other crops.
    Bottomland Hardwood Forests

    Oak, ash, hickory, gum, and cottonwood species were common along the major river drainages such as the Trinity, Red River, Sulphur, Sabine, Angelina, Neches, and Attoyac. These hardwood trees grew very large in the rich bottomland soil. Early accounts described oaks, ashes, and hickories up to diameters of 6, 4, and 3 feet, respectively. Much of this timber was being harvested and rafted out along the rivers. Local factories were being constructed to utilize the hardwood material. Early 1900's logging.

    In addition to the commercial harvest of the bottomland forest, settlers were clearing the forests for settlement and agricultural production in the nutrient rich soils.

    Present

    The Pineywoods landscape has changed drastically over the last 100 years. Many human-induced factors have influenced the dynamics of the east Texas forest. A recent survey (1992) of 43 east Texas counties estimated that there were 11.9 million acres of forest and 9.7 million acres of nonforest land. Most (62%) timberland was nonindustrial private forest land (7.3 million acres). Industrial timberlands comprised 32 percent of the area. The predominant forest type in east Texas was the loblolly-shortleaf pine type (35%). Bottomland hardwoods comprised 15 percent of the area. The least common forest type was the longleaf-slash pine type (2%).

    Even-aged pine plantation.In most areas, the virgin forest has been harvested several times over the last century. Thinnings and clearcutting account for the most common harvest methods. Following harvest, some areas are allowed to regenerate naturally, while others are planted. The most common species planted is loblolly pine. In many cases, competing hardwood vegetation is controlled by herbicides or mechanical means which favors the establishment of pines. This has resulted in thousands of acres of pine plantations, that have little, if any hardwood component. A recent survey indicated that 22% of all timberland was classified as pine plantation. Most (72%) plantation establishment was on forest industry lands. The 1992 survey indicated that approximately 71% of the plantations were less than 20 years old.

    A very small amount of the historic longleaf range area is currently occupied by longleaf. Difficulties associated with regeneration of longleaf pine, conversion to loblolly and slash pine forests, and the absence of fire has reduced this forest type to less than 10% of its former range. Most of the longleaf forests that remain are not typical of the historic longleaf forests that were maintained by fire.

    The southern yellowpine ecosystem evolved with periodic fires, either from lightning strikes, or the practice of Native Americans. Fires would spread across vast areas, driven by an abundance of highly flammable ground fuels such as pine needles and grass, and the lack of man-made barriers such as highways and lakes. In the absence of periodic fires, the grass community disappears and is replaced by shade tolerant hardwoods. The loss of this pine Savannah type habitat has led to the decline of many species that were once associated with it. Examples include red-cockaded woodpecker, Louisiana pine snake, northern bobwhite, eastern wild turkey, and Bachman's sparrow.

    Much of the area previously occupied by bottomland hardwood forests has been converted to other uses. Many thousands of acres of bottomland hardwood forest have been lost due to reservoir construction. The construction of dams along major river drainages has resulted in the upstream flooding and loss of bottomland hardwood forests.

    As mentioned previously, these bottomland areas contain highly productive soils. Therefore, thousands of acres of bottomland hardwood forests have been lost due to conversion to agricultural production.

    #2
    Pineywoods Wildlife Management
    Habitat Management


    Aldo Leopold wrote in his 1933 textbook titled Game Management, "game can be restored by the creative use of the same tools which have heretofore destroyed it-ax, plow, cow, fire, and gun." The following is a brief discussion of how each of these tools can be utilized to manage habitat and wildlife in the Pineywoods.

    Today, it is very important that land managers understand basic ecological principles of plant succession; plant growth; food chains; and water, mineral and soil nutritive cycles as they affect range, wildlife, and grazing management. In addition we should know and recognize the basic needs and preferences of the livestock and wildlife species for which we are trying to manage. It is equally important to manage for a high level of plant succession and quality wildlife habitat using the basic tools of grazing, rest, fire, hunting, animal impact, disturbance, and technology. This not only produces high quality habitat and animals, but also can lead to more stable conditions during stress periods such as droughts and winter.

    Axe

    The chainsaw and other mechanized equipment have long since replaced the axe. Although the tools have changed, the habitat quality of forested areas can be maintained or improved through proper management. As discussed in the Historical Perspective, the forests of today are very different than those present during pre-settlement times. Due to the economic value of pine timber, many landowners are involved with intensive timber management. Although revenue from timber production may be the primary focus of the landowner, the economic value of wildlife relative to timber production has improved significantly. Therefore, it is easier for the landowner to justify giving wildlife consideration when management planning. Forested areas can be managed to produce wood fiber, while at the same time providing concessions for wildlife. Management activities that increase habitat diversity are valuable for game as well as nongame species. Timber management strategies can be grouped into 2 categories, even-aged and uneven-aged.

    Even-aged Management

    Even-aged management is defined as the application of a combination of management actions, which results in a timber stand comprised of trees that are the same age. Harvest methods used to generate even-aged stands are clearcut, seed-tree, and shelterwood. A clearcut results in the removal of all merchantable timber and is usually followed by site preparation and planting. Both the seed-tree and shelterwood methods rely on natural regeneration. A seed-tree operation results in the removal of all merchantable timber, with the exception of a few, well-spaced high quality trees with good seed production that will be relied upon to regenerate the stand. Approximately 8-10 trees per acre may be retained for seed production. These seed-trees may be harvested after adequate regeneration has become established, or may be left indefinitely. The shelterwood method results in the removal of 40 to 60% of the merchantable timber. The residual trees are relied upon for seed production and seedlings become established in partial sunlight under the shelter of the residual trees. Similar to the seed-tree method, residual trees may be harvested after adequate regeneration has become established.

    Regardless of the method used, consideration should be given to the size, shape, and distribution of the harvest area prior to the final harvest operation. Regeneration cuts (final harvest cuts) should not exceed 50 acres. Stands should be irregularly shaped to increase edge. In order to produce a mosaic of stands of various ages in close proximity, stands should not be harvested until the adjacent stand is at least 5-7 years old.

    During harvest, streamside management zones (SMZ's), or a band of uncut timber, should be retained on each side of stream channels within the regeneration area. The SMZ should be a minimum width of 66 feet on each side of the channel. Along intermittent and perennial streams, widths of 100 feet or more are preferred. To provide maximum benefit to wildlife, these minimum widths should be extended to an identifiable natural break in topography (crest to crest), or to an area defined by the presence of hardwoods. In addition to protecting water quality, these areas increase diversity, provide valuable mast production, and serve as wildlife travel corridors. In addition to SMZ's, clumps of upland hardwoods should be retained to create additional diversity.

    Prior to regenerating an area, some level of site-preparation is usually necessary. There are many site-preparation techniques available. The more intense site preparation techniques tend to favor grasses and herbaceous vegetation, while less intense methods tend to favor woody species. When regenerating artificially (planting), seedlings should be planted on a spacing of at least 8 feet by 10 feet. A wide spacing delays canopy closure, which results in the shading out of valuable understory vegetation.

    After canopy closure has occurred, the production of grasses, forbs, woody vines, and low growing shrubs greatly declines due to the lack of sunlight. At this point, the pine plantation loses much of its value to wildlife, except for cover. Stands that have reached canopy closure should be thinned. Thinning will not only increase the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor, but will also reduce competition among the residual trees. Thinnings can be applied periodically throughout the life of the stand. Thinning operations should remove poor quality pines and undesirable hardwood species, while favoring the high quality pines and valuable mast producing hardwoods.

    Even-aged management is relatively simple to apply. However, since many private landowners find even-aged management (especially clearcutting) objectionable, this management strategy may have limited application on the small acreages typical of many east Texas landowners.

    Uneven-aged Management

    Uneven-aged management is defined as the application of a combination of management actions that maintains several age-classes and tree sizes within a timber stand. In order to produce a sustained yield of forest products, uneven-aged management results in continuous canopy coverage, recurring regeneration of desirable species, and the orderly growth and development of trees in several diameter and age-classes. Regeneration is through natural methods.

    Under an uneven-aged management strategy, individual trees (single-tree selection) or small groups of trees (group selection) are selectively harvested every 5-10 years. An area properly managed under single-tree selection results in a forest that is comprised of evenly distributed large, medium, and small trees of various ages. This system requires the removal of trees of all ages and sizes in order to maintain a healthy stand. To prevent degradation of the stand, the application of this harvest strategy requires the expertise of a forester experienced in uneven-aged management. Diameter cutting (cutting all trees larger than a predetermined size, rather than using tree age as criteria) or "high-grading", can result in a stand comprised of inferior trees after a few cutting cycles and should be avoided.

    In order to replace individual trees that are removed, seedling establishment in the openings created by tree harvest is a critical component of uneven-aged management. Under this system, a more or less continuous overstory is maintained. Therefore, tree species that require direct sunlight to regenerate, such as pines, do not fare as well as other species that require less direct sunlight. In order to maximize the amount of sunlight that filters through the overstory and successfully reaches the ground, the more shade tolerant species in the midstory and understory may need to be controlled. Prescribed fire can be used to control small, competing species. Since the effects of fire will be short-lived, frequent fires are necessary. This poses a problem for pine regeneration, as pine seedlings (except longleaf) are unable to withstand frequent burning. The prescribed fire interval necessary to control competing vegetation often is too short to ensure adequate survival of pine seedlings. Therefore, successful single-tree selection management in pine stands often requires the use of herbicides or mechanical means to control competing species.

    The landowner's objective should dictate the level of control of competing vegetation. Intense control that favors pines over other species, results in a stand of higher economic value. Conversely, less intense control results in a mixed stand that is of lower economic value, but higher wildlife value.

    Unlike single-tree selection, the group selection strategy involves the harvest of trees in groups or patches. The size of the group may range from an area occupied by a few trees up to a few acres. Group selection creates larger openings that are more conducive to pine regeneration, than those created under single-tree selection. Prescribed fire can be used in areas managed under the group selection strategy. However, burning may be less efficient and more labor intensive due to the need to protect the scattered "patches" that are too young to burn.

    Group selection management increases habitat diversity by providing small, scattered patches of micro-habitats in various stages of plant succession over a small area. Early successional habitat is made available in close proximity to habitats in more advanced successional stages.

    Group selection may be a useful management scheme for many non-industrial private landowners since it provides a diversity of wildlife habitat within a relatively small area. Group selection also minimizes or reduces the negative visual impacts that are associated with some even-aged management strategies.

    As with even-aged management, proper uneven-aged management should allow for a continuous component of mast producing hardwoods.

    Effective habitat management often requires the availability and proper use of an array of management "tools". Due to varying management objectives, no one tool, or timber management system, is the most appropriate for every situation. Misuse of any timber management strategy can cause degradation of habitat quality. Land managers should develop well-defined objectives, and select and properly implement the strategy that is the most appropriate for their management needs.

    Prior to settlement, longleaf pine forests, with grass dominated understories, dominated the uplands in southeast Texas. Due to conversion to loblolly and slash pine forests, and suppression of fires, very little of this habitat type remains today. Landowners involved with pine regeneration on suitable sites are encouraged to consider restoration of the important longleaf pine ecosystem.

    The above management guidelines pertained primarily to the management of upland pine stands. Bottomland hardwood stands provide valuable wildlife habitat. Unfortunately, the quantity of bottomland hardwoods has greatly decreased. Bottomland hardwood forests should be managed to provide a continuous supply of hard mast and cavities. Peak acorn production occurs in stands that are between 40 and 100 years old. Therefore, the majority of the stands should be at least 40 years old and long rotations (80+ years) are encouraged. In established stands, partial cuttings (thinnings) can be made on a 10-year cutting cycle. Thinning will promote vegetative growth in the understory and encourage vigorous growth in the residual trees. Thinnings should improve the quality of the stand. As with upland pine management, thinnings should favor high quality mast producing trees and remove low quality trees or undesirable species. Landowners should not let unscrupulous individuals "high grade" the stand. High-grading results when the high-quality trees are removed and the malformed or defective trees are left.

    When regenerating bottomland hardwood stands, group selection or patch clearcuts are generally preferred. The two techniques are similar in that all stems are removed during the final harvest and the new stand develops from sprouts and advanced regeneration present prior to the harvest. The main difference relates to the size of the opening, with group selection being the smaller of the two. Due to the complexities of bottomland hardwood management a person experienced in the management of bottomland hardwood stands should be consulted prior to conducting management activities.

    If wildlife and water quality are of concern, bottomlands should not be converted to pine, pasture, or agriculture.


    Cow

    Leopold often referred to the cow as a valuable management tool. Leopold realized that cows could be used to manipulate the habitat similar to the manipulation applied by herds of bison prior to their decline. Since much of the Pineywoods landscape has been converted to pasture, comprised of native vegetation (forbs and grasses) or improved grasses (coastal bermuda, bahia), cattle management in the Pineywoods affects wildlife populations. Pastures can be beneficial for a variety of wildlife species if properly managed. Native grass pastures will provide habitat for more species of wildlife than pastures dominated by tame grasses such as coastal bermuda or bahia. Since cattle primarily consume grass, they do not normally compete with most wildlife for the same food sources, unless forced to do so by excessive stocking rates and/or continuous grazing pressure. The main role of cattle grazing in a wildlife management program is to reduce the quantity of grass, allowing sunlight to reach the lower growing forbs. Many forbs are beneficial to wildlife for forage and/or seed production. A well-managed, high intensity/low frequency grazing system can create soil disturbance that encourages seed germination. This "hoof-action" also creates interspersed patches of bare ground that facilitates movement of small, ground foraging birds. The results achieved from this management strategy should not be confused with overgrazing.

    Cattle should be excluded from forested areas unless the area is being grazed to achieve a specific habitat management objective, such as reduction of understory vegetation. If cattle are allowed to graze in wooded areas, they should be removed during the fall and winter months to reduce competition with deer.

    Cattle are selective grazers and will consume the most palatable and nutritious plants first. A well-planned grazing system is one that allows for adequate rest periods for plants to recover following grazing. The length of the recovery period depends upon several variables, including the severity of defoliation, moisture conditions, and temperature. Several rotation systems have been developed which provide adequate periods of rest and allow vegetative recovery. There are many variations of these systems and the land manager should select the one that is most suitable to their particular situation.

    If continuous grazing is allowed, the most palatable plants are repeatedly defoliated. This frequent, repeated use does not allow for seed production and/or plant recovery. Therefore, the most desirable and palatable plants are removed and replaced by the least preferred plants. This changes the species composition and reduces overall plant species diversity.

    Since forbs compete with grasses, their presence in rangeland plant communities is usually considered to be undesirable to many range managers. Therefore, in many instances, native range has been converted to tame grasses. However, most species of "improved" livestock forages do not have much value to wildlife (except possibly as cover for some species), especially if grown in dense monocultures with little plant diversity. If tame grasses are necessary for forage production, the use of pasture herbicides should be minimized to protect native forbs and weeds that are beneficial to wildlife. Spot spray or mow to control weeds instead of broadcasting herbicides. Clover and elbon rye can be over-seeded in improved pastures and along the edges of the native pastures during the fall. The clover and rye will provide supplemental forage for both deer and cattle.

    Plow

    In many forested areas, plant diversity is decreased due to the lack of openings. The creation and management of openings comprised of native vegetation can improve the availability of food plants for wildlife. In addition to benefiting deer and game birds, openings also benefit other seed and insect-eating songbirds. Openings can be managed to provide an abundance of forbs and insects. Openings require periodic maintenance to control encroachment of woody vegetation, to maintain plant diversity, and to provide interspersed bare ground that is important for ground foraging birds such as quail. These conditions result from properly managed habitat "disturbance" or manipulation, such as periodic discing.

    Strip-discing in woodlands.Late fall and winter discing will promote germination of both cool and warm season forbs, particularly on sandy loam and loamy sand soils. This process promotes seed germination by increasing the amount of sunlight, and by putting the seeds in contact with bare ground and moisture. The timing and amount of spring rainfall will have an impact on the quantity, quality, and types of native plant, which result from discing. Although not required, soil testing and appropriate fertilization of disced areas will improve germination and seed production.

    In addition to the establishment and maintenance of native openings, supplemental forages (food plots) can be managed to improve diversity and production. Planted food plots can provide a highly nutritious food source that can be beneficial to wildlife during periods of stress. Food plots should not be considered a substitute for good management. They should be considered as "supplements" to the native habitat, not as a "cure-all" for low quality or poorly managed habitats. Wildlife species have prospered in the absence of food plots. Properly managed food plots can provide positive benefits, but they are not essential if proper habitat management practices are implemented. Food plots and native openings often increase visibility and can facilitate the adequate harvest of does in habitats with low visibility.

    Since late summer and late winter are often stressful periods of the year for wildlife, both warm season and cool season food plots can be established.

    Warm-season plot.During the dry summer months, as plant growth slows, the nutrient levels in native vegetation are much lower than when the plants are actively growing during the spring. Warm season plantings include cowpeas, alyceclover and American jointvetch. While alyceclover, jointvetch, and cowpeas are annuals, the jointvetch will reseed if it is allowed to produce seed and then mowed in the fall.

    In order to insure proper growth, all warm season plantings should be planted on bottomland sites (if possible) where soil moisture will be sufficient during the summer to insure proper growth.

    Cool season plantings include combinations of elbon rye, clovers, rye grass, and wheat. Cereal grains such as rye and wheat will benefit quail, turkeys, and songbirds in the spring. The clover will provide good bug production areas for insect eating birds in late spring. A variety of clovers should be planted and can include varieties such as Arrowleaf, Crimson or Subterranean.

    To minimize the distance that wildlife must travel, openings should be distributed across the property as much as possible. It is always best to establish a variety of plantings to provide more diversity and to insure against the failure of one type of planting. It is essential that food plots are properly fertilized and limed in order to receive the maximum benefit. Each food plot should have a soil test in order to determine the correct lime and fertilizer rates.

    Fire

    The pine forests of the southeast United States evolved with periodic fires. Frequent fires set by Indians and lightning were part of the Southern forest ecosystem for thousands of years, most ecologists believe. Prescribed fires can be utilized to replace the naturally occurring fires. Prescribed burning is the planned application of fire to enhance habitat and plant diversity, increase food, manipulate cover, or improve the structure of the habitat. Prescribed burning is an effective, low cost habitat management tool that can be used to "mimic" the natural cycle of burning.

    A regular burning program can be used to maintain open understory conditions in pine and mixed pine and hardwood stands. Burns are less volatile if conducted during the dormant season (winter). Cool season burns will reduce the amount of debris on the ground and improve habitat conditions for many species of wildlife. Burning stimulates the production of herbaceous vegetation and legumes, and improves the quality of existing browse plants by killing the above ground portion of the smaller plants, causing the plants to resprout from the roots. In addition to these sprouts being more nutritious and palatable, they are reduced in height and more available to wildlife. Fire also reduces accumulated dead matter and obstacles that restrict movement of ground foraging birds. If the goal is to reduce woody vegetation and promote the growth of grasses and other herbaceous vegetation, growing season burns can be utilized.

    Ideally, burns should be conducted in small blocks to increase the amount of diversity within the stand. In order to minimize the risk of damage to young trees, pine stands (except longleaf) less than 15 years old should not be burned. In pine stands, burn rotations of 3-5 years are recommended. Mixed pine and hardwood stands should be burned less frequently to minimize damage to hardwood trees. Vegetation conditions and site productivity may dictate more, or less frequent fire intervals. Special care must be taken when burning hardwood areas. A cool creeping fire that "backs" into a hardwood bottom is generally not damaging, but a "hot" fast moving head fire should not be allowed to burn into a hardwood bottom.

    Prescribed burning of native rangeland may be used to control woody vegetation and stimulate the production of native grasses and forbs. This will remove old growth and young, invasive woody growth, and stimulate new growth of plants that have become dormant due to lack of disturbance. Native rangeland should be prescribed burned on a three-year rotation during the fall (Sept.-Oct.). Burns should be conducted after plants have matured and seeds have fallen to the ground. Burn in 40 to 50 acre blocks to create a patchwork pattern. If a heavy grass component is present, the areas can be grazed immediately. Grazing will reduce grasses that compete with forbs. If grasses are not a heavy component, there should be a period of rest to allow for forb production. Burning controls woody vegetation and encourages new growth of grasses, weeds, and wildflowers. Burned pastures typically provide about 7 times more insects for birds and promote more forbs and legumes that benefit wildlife.

    Although fire is a very cost effective and beneficial tool, if misused, fire can be damaging to wildlife, timber, and other resources. Due to the liabilities and legal constraints associated with the use of fire, the land manager should be well trained and knowledgeable in the proper use of fire before attempting a prescribed burn.

    Gun

    White-tailed deer have a high reproduction potential, and in the absence of natural predators, can quickly overpopulate a range. If white-tailed deer are allowed to overpopulate, they can have negative effects on the habitat. Deer consume the most palatable plant species first, and excessive browsing pressure can eliminate these preferred plant species from the range. This reduces plant diversity and can have negative impacts on other wildlife species. Once a range is damaged by overgrazing, it can take years for a range to recover, even after deer numbers are reduced to an appropriate level.

    The most effective way to regulate deer numbers is through hunting. Hunting allows the land manager to maintain deer numbers at a level that the habitat can support without causing damage to the habitat. In addition to habitat damage, deer from overstocked ranges generally have poor fawn survival, low body weights, and poor antler quality. The most effective way to reduce deer numbers is through the harvest of doe deer at appropriate levels. Once deer numbers are at a desired level, doe harvest must be continued to maintain the population at a desirable level.

    Each time a deer hunter chooses to shoot a deer, or not to shoot a deer, a management decision that will affect the future of that deer herd and habitat is made. For example, choosing to shoot, or not to shoot a doe, affects the sex ratio and reproductive potential of the herd. Choosing to shoot, or not to shoot, a yearling buck affects the current and future age structure of the buck population. Therefore, not only can the gun be used to manipulate deer numbers, it can also be used to manipulate sex ratios, reproductive potential, and age structure of the herd.

    Another species that can have negative impacts on the habitat is the feral hog, which is considered an exotic. Feral hogs can compete with white-tailed deer for available food sources, such as acorns, thereby increasing the browsing pressure on the range. Feral hogs can also damage sensitive wetland areas as a result of rooting activity. It is recommended that feral hogs be harvested at every opportunity and that protection not be afforded them.

    Comment


      #3
      I love the last line.

      Comment


        #4
        Peyton, that is the best post I have seen thus far on this site! Awesome natural history lesson.

        Just saw you did all the ecoregions of Texas, neat! I am from and hunt in the Piney Woods so that one is the first my eye went to.

        Comment


          #5
          Thanks! I'm glad you enjoyed the info

          Comment


            #6
            [ATTACH]149349[/ATTACH]

            Comment


              #7
              Amen!

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